1Volumetric AnalysisMeasuring one solution against another: the concentration terms, the equivalent weight that makes them comparable, the normality equation, and the acid-base and redox titrations a laboratory actually runs.Board exam — Physical chemistry, 22 marks across 5 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Concentration terms: molarity, molality, normality and formality
Equivalent weight of acids, bases, salts and oxidising agents
Primary and secondary standard substances
The normality equation and its deduction
Acid-base titration, the choice of indicator and the titration curve
Redox titration: potassium permanganate and potassium dichromate
Iodometric and iodimetric titration
Numerical problems on titration and percentage purity
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2Ionic EquilibriumWhat an electrolyte does in water: the three acid-base theories, the equilibria of weak acids and bases, and the common ion effect and solubility product that make qualitative salt analysis work at all.Board exam — Physical chemistry, 22 marks across 5 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis concepts of acids and bases
Ionisation of weak acids and bases; Ostwald's dilution law
Ionic product of water, pH and pOH
Common ion effect
Solubility and solubility product; their application in salt analysis
Buffer solutions: acidic and basic; buffer action
Salt hydrolysis and the pH of salt solutions
Numerical problems on pH, degree of ionisation and solubility product
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3Chemical KineticsHow fast a reaction goes and what the rate depends on: average against instantaneous rate, the rate law read off experimental data, order against molecularity, and the activation energy an energy profile makes visible.Board exam — Physical chemistry, 22 marks across 5 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Rate of reaction: average and instantaneous rate; rate expressions
Factors affecting the rate of a reaction
Rate law, rate constant and their units
Order and molecularity of a reaction, and the differences between them
Zero order and first order reactions; half-life
Pseudo-first order reactions
Determination of order from experimental data
Collision theory, activation energy and the energy profile diagram
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4ThermodynamicsThe book-keeping of energy in a reaction: the first law and enthalpy, Hess's law and the heats it lets you calculate without measuring, then entropy and the free energy that decides whether a reaction goes at all.Board exam — Physical chemistry, 22 marks across 5 chaptersView topicsHide topics
System, surroundings, state functions and thermodynamic processes
First law of thermodynamics; internal energy and enthalpy
Enthalpy of formation, combustion, neutralisation and solution
Hess's law of constant heat summation and its applications
Bond enthalpy and its use in calculating heat of reaction
Spontaneity; entropy and the second law
Gibbs free energy and the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation
Numerical problems on enthalpy, entropy and free energy change
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5ElectrochemistryChemistry driven by electricity and electricity driven by chemistry: conductance and Faraday's laws on one side, electrode potential and the galvanic cell on the other, and the electrochemical series that ranks them.Board exam — Physical chemistry, 22 marks across 5 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Electrolytes, electrolysis and the products at each electrode
Faraday's laws of electrolysis and numerical problems
Conductance: specific, equivalent and molar; their variation with dilution
Electrode potential and standard electrode potential
The electrochemical series and its applications
Galvanic cells: construction, cell notation and cell reactions
Electromotive force of a cell and the Nernst equation
Primary and secondary cells; fuel cells
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6Transition MetalsWhy the d-block behaves as it does: the incomplete d subshell that gives variable oxidation states, colour, magnetism and catalysis, and the complex ions Werner's theory was invented to explain.Board exam — Inorganic chemistry, 12 marks across 2 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Position of the d-block in the periodic table; electronic configuration
General characteristics: atomic and ionic radii, melting point, density
Variable oxidation states and the maximum oxidation state of the 3d series
Colour and magnetic properties, and the reasons for them
Catalytic properties and alloy formation
Complex ion formation; Werner's theory, ligands and coordination number
Nomenclature of coordination compounds
Why zinc, cadmium and mercury are not regarded as transition elements
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7Studies of Heavy MetalsFour metals treated the same way each time — ore, extraction, compounds and uses — for copper, zinc, mercury and iron, ending with the rusting of iron and how it is stopped.Board exam — Inorganic chemistry, 12 marks across 2 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Copper: ores, extraction from copper pyrites, properties and uses
Compounds of copper: blue vitriol and the deep blue ammine complex
Zinc: ores, extraction by the vertical retort process, properties and uses
Compounds of zinc: white vitriol and zinc oxide
Mercury: cinnabar, extraction, properties and uses
Compounds of mercury: corrosive sublimate and calomel
Iron: ores, extraction in the blast furnace, slag formation and the zones
Cast iron, wrought iron and steel; the electrochemical theory of rusting and its prevention
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8HaloalkanesThe carbon-halogen bond at an sp3 carbon: how it is made, and the substitution and elimination it undergoes — with SN1 and SN2 as the one mechanism question the board returns to.Board exam — Organic chemistry, 33 marks across 10 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Nomenclature and classification of haloalkanes
Preparation from alcohols, alkanes and alkenes
Physical properties and the reactivity order of the halides
Nucleophilic substitution: SN1 and SN2 mechanisms and the evidence for each
Elimination with alcoholic potassium hydroxide; Saytzeff's rule
Reaction with aqueous versus alcoholic potassium hydroxide
Chloroform: preparation, properties, uses and the test for its purity
Iodoform: preparation, the iodoform test and its uses
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9HaloarenesThe same bond on a benzene ring, and why it behaves so differently: resonance gives it partial double bond character, so the halogen will not leave — while the ring it sits on keeps directing new groups ortho and para.Board exam — Organic chemistry, 33 marks across 10 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Nomenclature and classification of haloarenes
Preparation from benzene, from phenol, and by Sandmeyer's and Gattermann's reactions
Physical properties
Low reactivity towards nucleophilic substitution; resonance and partial double bond character
Nucleophilic substitution under forcing conditions
Electrophilic substitution; the halogen as an ortho- and para-directing deactivator
Wurtz-Fittig and Fittig reactions
Uses: DDT, BHC and chlorobenzene
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10AlcoholsThe hydroxyl group on a saturated carbon: four ways to make one, the tests that tell primary from secondary from tertiary, and the oxidation, dehydration and esterification that follow.Board exam — Organic chemistry, 33 marks across 10 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Nomenclature and classification; primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
Preparation from haloalkanes, alkenes, aldehydes and ketones, and Grignard reagents
Physical properties; hydrogen bonding and its consequences
Reactions with sodium, hydrogen halides, phosphorus halides and thionyl chloride
Oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
Dehydration to alkenes and ethers
Esterification; the iodoform test
Distinguishing the three classes: Lucas test and Victor Meyer's method
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11PhenolsThe same hydroxyl group on a benzene ring, which makes it an acid: preparation by four routes, the acidity resonance explains, and the named reactions that put a carbon group on the ring.Board exam — Organic chemistry, 33 marks across 10 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Nomenclature and classification of phenols
Preparation from benzenesulphonic acid, chlorobenzene, cumene and diazonium salts
Physical properties
Acidic character of phenol and the effect of substituents on it
Electrophilic substitution: nitration, halogenation and sulphonation
Reimer-Tiemann reaction and Kolbe's reaction
Coupling with diazonium salts; Libermann's nitroso test
Uses of phenol
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12EthersTwo alkyl groups joined by an oxygen: Williamson's synthesis, the inertness that makes an ether a solvent, and the cleavage by hydrogen iodide that is almost its only reaction.Board exam — Organic chemistry, 33 marks across 10 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Nomenclature and classification; symmetrical and unsymmetrical ethers
Preparation by Williamson's synthesis
Preparation by the dehydration of alcohols
Physical properties and the reason for their low boiling points
Cleavage by hydrogen iodide and the products at each end
Reaction with air: peroxide formation
Diethyl ether: preparation, properties and uses
Distinguishing an ether from an alcohol
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13Aldehydes and KetonesThe carbonyl group and the nucleophile that attacks it: preparation by oxidation and by four named routes, the addition and condensation reactions, and the tests that tell an aldehyde from a ketone.Board exam — Organic chemistry, 33 marks across 10 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Nomenclature; the structure and polarity of the carbonyl group
Preparation by the oxidation of alcohols, by Rosenmund's reduction and by the oxo process
Preparation from calcium salts of acids and by ozonolysis
Nucleophilic addition: hydrogen cyanide, sodium bisulphite and Grignard reagents
Condensation with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine and other ammonia derivatives
Aldol condensation and Cannizzaro's reaction
Perkin's, Claisen's and benzoin condensations
Tollens', Fehling's and iodoform tests; distinguishing aldehydes from ketones
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14Carboxylic Acids and their DerivativesThe acid group and the four things it turns into: acid chloride, anhydride, ester and amide — with the interconversions among them the board asks as a chain.Board exam — Organic chemistry, 33 marks across 10 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Nomenclature of carboxylic acids and their derivatives
Preparation of carboxylic acids by oxidation, hydrolysis and carboxylation
Acidic character and the effect of substituents on it
Reactions with phosphorus pentoxide, thionyl chloride, ammonia and alcohols
Acid chlorides: preparation and reactions
Acid anhydrides and esters: preparation and reactions
Amides: preparation, and Hoffmann's bromamide reaction
Decarboxylation and the Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction
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15Nitro CompoundsThe nitro group on an alkane and on a ring: the tautomerism that explains the nitrous acid tests, reduction that changes product with the medium, and why nitrobenzene sends the next group meta.Board exam — Organic chemistry, 33 marks across 10 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Nomenclature and classification of nitroalkanes
Preparation of nitroalkanes and their physical properties
Tautomerism in nitroalkanes
Reduction of nitroalkanes in acidic, neutral and alkaline media
Action of nitrous acid: nitrolic acid and pseudonitrol as tests
Nitrobenzene: preparation and physical properties
Reduction of nitrobenzene in different media
Why nitrobenzene undergoes electrophilic substitution at the meta position
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16AminesAmmonia with its hydrogens replaced: the basicity that ranks the three classes, the tests and the Hoffmann separation that tell them apart, and aniline's diazonium salt — the most useful intermediate in the syllabus.Board exam — Organic chemistry, 33 marks across 10 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Nomenclature and classification; primary, secondary and tertiary amines
Preparation by the reduction of nitro compounds, and by Hoffmann's bromamide reaction
Preparation by Gabriel's phthalimide synthesis and by reductive amination
Basic character of amines and the comparison of the three classes
Distinguishing the classes: Hinsberg's test, nitrous acid and the carbylamine reaction
Separation of a mixture of amines by Hoffmann's method
Aniline: preparation, properties and uses
Diazotisation; benzenediazonium chloride, coupling reactions and azo dyes
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17Organometallic CompoundsA carbon-metal bond, and what it is for: the three classes, and the Grignard reagent that makes alcohols, acids and hydrocarbons out of almost anything with a carbonyl in it.Board exam — Organic chemistry, 33 marks across 10 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Definition of an organometallic compound and the nature of the carbon-metal bond
Classification: ionic, sigma-bonded and pi-bonded compounds
Grignard reagent: preparation and the conditions it needs
Reactions of Grignard reagents with carbonyl compounds
Reactions of Grignard reagents with water, carbon dioxide and other reagents
Synthetic applications of the Grignard reagent
Examples: tetraethyl lead, nickel tetracarbonyl and alkyl lithium
Uses and importance of organometallic compounds
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18CementOne industrial manufacture followed end to end: the raw materials, the wet and dry processes through the rotary kiln, the chemistry of setting and hardening, and the difference between OPC and PPC.Board exam — Applied chemistry, 8 marks across 4 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Raw materials for the manufacture of Portland cement
Chemical composition of cement and the function of each constituent
The wet process and the dry process
Flowsheet of manufacture; the rotary kiln and its zones
The role of gypsum in cement
Setting and hardening of cement
Types of cement: ordinary Portland cement and Portland pozzolana cement
Uses of cement and the environmental cost of making it
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19Paper and PulpHow a tree becomes a sheet: what pulp is and how it differs from paper, the mechanical and chemical routes to it, and the bleaching and finishing that follow.Board exam — Applied chemistry, 8 marks across 4 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Raw materials for the production of paper
Pulp and paper: the difference between them
Mechanical pulping
Chemical pulping: the sulphite, sulphate (kraft) and soda processes
Bleaching of pulp
Manufacture of paper from pulp; sizing, filling and calendering
Recycling of paper
Environmental problems of the paper industry and their control
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20PolymersSmall molecules joined into long ones: addition against condensation, the named plastics and fibres each route gives, rubber and its vulcanisation, and why biodegradability has become the question.Board exam — Applied chemistry, 8 marks across 4 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Polymers and monomers; degree of polymerisation
Classification: natural and synthetic; homopolymer and copolymer
Addition polymerisation and its mechanism
Condensation polymerisation and its mechanism
Addition polymers: polythene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene and teflon
Condensation polymers: nylon 6,6, terylene and bakelite
Natural and synthetic rubber; vulcanisation
Biodegradable polymers and the problem of plastic waste
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21Nuclear ChemistryChemistry of the nucleus rather than the electrons: the three radiations and the law that predicts the daughter, half-life, and the fission and fusion that release the binding energy holding a nucleus together.Board exam — Applied chemistry, 8 marks across 4 chaptersView topicsHide topics
Radioactivity; alpha, beta and gamma radiation and their properties
Group displacement law and the writing of nuclear equations
Rate of radioactive decay and half-life; numerical problems
Nuclear stability, mass defect and binding energy
Nuclear fission and the chain reaction
Nuclear fusion and why it is called a thermonuclear reaction
Nuclear reactor: its parts and their functions
Uses of radioisotopes in medicine, agriculture and dating; radiation hazards
